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The Implementation of the ULIX Literate Operating System

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A diary documenting the implementation of ULIX-i386

Welcome to the ULIX blog.

Ulix (Literate Unix) is a Unix-like operating system developed at University of Erlangen-Nürnberg. I use D. E. Knuth's concept of Literate Programming for the implementation and documentation. The goal was a fully working system which can be used in operating system courses to show students how OS concepts (such as paging and scheduling) can be implemented. Literate programs are very accessible because they can be read like a book; the order of presentation is not enforced by program logic or compiler restrictions, but instead is guided by the implementer's creative process.

Ulix is written in C and assembler for the Intel architecture. The literate programming part is handled by noweb.

On this page I document my progress with the implementation.


Navigation: 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011


v0.13: First public release (04.11.2015)


Yesterday, I put the first public release of Ulix online. You can get it from the ulixos.org website. Both the source code (hosted on GitHub) as well as the Ulix book are available from that site. Also, in September my PhD thesis (which also contains the Ulix book as a huge appendix) was published. It is available on the university's webserver (PDF, 1054 pages, 11.5 MByte).

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v0.12: Ulix code and book finished (02.09.2014)


One week ago I finished work on the first edition of the Ulix book. It will be published once my PhD dissertation has been accepted and defended, but I can already say that the book has almost 700 pages with lots of figures and tables. Ulix seems to be stable enough for playing a bit with it.

The latest additions to the code were pthread-style threads (implemented in the kernel, but with a user mode interface) and pthread mutexes.

A printed version of the book sits beside my other operating systems books (see picture), and I like it a lot :)

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v0.11: Filesystem Code complete (23.04.2014)


The latest Ulix version's filesystem code is feature-complete. All Minix2 functions work fully (including support for single and double indirection blocks and directories with up to 7x16 entries), there's a new virtual /dev filesystem which allows access to the two floppies, two harddisks and RAM (/dev/kmem), the buffer cache is now used for caching writeblock() calls as well.

There's also the beginning of a kernel mode thread package with some of the pthread_ and pthread_mutex_ functions.

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v0.10: VFS, switch to kernel shell (and back) (07.01.2014)


The Virtual Filesystem (VFS) mentioned in the 0.09 news is complete now which means: we can 'cd' to directories on mounted media, read, write, and delete files and show directory contents.
Entering the kernel mode shell via Shift+Esc (which was possible before) is no longer a one-way ticket, typing exit brings us back to the user mode program.
Also, the "ULIX lectures" (the OS development course at TH Nuremberg) is about to end soon, with most of the ULIX code presented during the lectures (or worked on/rebuilt in the tutorial sessions).
What's left for ULIX? Signaling, Page Replacement, User mode synchronization.

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v0.09: IDE Disk, exec, vi (02.11.2013)


For a few months, Ulix has been able to use IDE hard disks. There's now also a virtual filesystem layer which lets the system mount hard disks and floppy disks to sub directories (but that's not complete yet; so far only one mounted device).
I've also written execve() which loads ELF binaries. Many tools which were shell-built-ins have now become "proper" external commands, residing in a /bin/ folder. The first real application is an ultra-simple vi clone: so far the editor can open and save files, switch between command and edit mode and actually insert/delete text. The only working commands are dd (delete line), x (delete character), wq (write and quit), and q! (quit without saving). The picture shows vi editing a C file.
The next release should see a completion of the virtual filesystem (with mount / umount commands) and the signaling code mentioned earlier.

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Buffer Cache (19.07.2013)


After noticing that disk access is pretty slow (because many blocks are being read over and over again) I introduced a simple buffer cache which can store 256 disk blocks im RAM. This has really sped up the access times; reading and writing feel normal now.

Currently only read operations are buffered. Maybe later I'll also buffer write operations and add a sync system call; but reading occurs much more often than writing.

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Filesystem: Directories, link, unlink (15.07.2013)


The Minix code is almost complete: Ulix can now access sub-directories and files inside those. Relative paths are converted into absolute paths, and the new functions link() and unlink() are finished. This can all be tested in user mode, the shell has built-in commands cd, touch, cp, ln, rm.

All filesystem actions have been tested (with fsck.minix), they all leave the filesystem valid.

What's missing is little things (mkdir, rmdir, symlink; I'll add those in the next days) and double indirection which I won't implement, it is only needed for files larger than 263 KByte, and those are not likely on 1.44 MB floppies.

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Having Fun with Minix (13.07.2013)


As I wrote in the last entry, I have implemented (parts of) the Minix filesystem. I used that one because Linux machines can create and mount Minix filesystem images. However, I use a Mac for development, and on those machines it is harder to access Minix volumes. The MacFUSE-based "minixfs" command can mount a Minix image, but only read-only, and I have not found software that can mount them writeable on the Mac.

So I created a small VirtualBox VM with Debian inside, shared the Mac's filesystem with the VM and created shell scripts which mount the Minix image and modify it. I had to learn that this approach doesn't work when the image resides on the vboxsf shared folder: Files kept disappearing from the image.

The solution was to first physically copy the image into the VM, mount it, make the changes, unmount it, and copy it back to the Mac. It works now :)

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v0.08: Floppies, Minix Filesystem (13.07.2013)


Ulix reads and writes floppy disks (via the FDC controller), it can handle parallel accesses from several processes (using a mutex to synchronize things). There's a basic implentation of the Minix (v2) filesystem: Via standard system calls, processes can open, read, write, lseek files, and single indirection for block numbers is possible. No double indirection, and currently no sub-directories. (The Minix code replaces the older simplefs filesystem which was a very basic FAT-type system.)

Next: Implementation of signals. There's already a kill() function and the corresponding system call, but the scheduler needs modification (for jumping into signal handlers when signals are found).

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ULIX course at Nuremberg University of Applied Sciences (30.05.2013)


Next term (winter 2013/14) I'll offer a course called "Operating System Development with Literate Programming" at Nuremberg University of Applied Sciences (Technische Hochschule Nürnberg). I'll introduce the literate programming technique, show ULIX code fragments as examples and let the students implement further ULIX components as literate programs.

When that course starts, ULIX should be sufficiently developped, so this gives me a nice deadline for completing the basic code.

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Virtual Consoles, Multiple Shells (30.04.2013)


The latest addition to Ulix is that it now supports ten virtual consoles, each of which can host a shell. That way it is possible to start tests on one console and watch its behavior (e.g. by displaying the process list) on another one.

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v0.07: Scheduling, fork(), exit(), and waitpid() are working (05.04.2013)


It's taken some time, but I finally got the context switch working, and so Ulix can now launch new processes and have them all run in parallel by the (simple round-robin) scheduler. The problem was in the function which changes the address space (by modifying the CR3 register which points to the page directory). For some time I thought it should be sufficient to make that function an inline function, but now I found that it must not be a function at all (there's still parameter-passing involved in calling inline functions, and these parameters are lost when changing the page directory). So now it's not a function call anymore, instead the scheduler directly switches the page directory, and everything works.

The first two Bachelor theses (on Ulix-Filesystem/RAM disk and the ELF binary loader) are completed, so after I've included the code in Ulix, it will be able to start programs from disk properly. The third student who is working on a priority-based scheduler is also about to complete his work in the next weeks.

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User Mode Shell (25.11.2012)


Ulix now boots into a user mode shell -- a real shell process which can fork new processes. Currently the new shell has only a few (internal) commands; it can show the process list (ps) and the files on the floppy (ls) and look into them with the head command. Ah, it also can exit...

The rewrite of the task-switching code seems to work a lot better than the original code which was based on a tutorial that I found on the web. For now, there are no more problems with the stacks. I've also changed the code for the system call handlers which now works with the same set of saved registers as interrupt handlers do; that makes life easier, because there are always the same data on the stack.

Also, the document which describes Ulix has crossed the 400 pages barrier today. It will likely grow to something like 600-700 pages before Ulix is finished.

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Redoing the scheduler and init / exec code; floppy access (19.11.2012)


Today I started rewriting the code for scheduling and process initialization (via fork() or load_from_disk()). The new code uses the fact that all handler functions (which includes system call handlers) can read the register contents of the process in user mode (before the interrupt occurred or the system call was initiated with int 0x80).

Also new in Ulix: I can now access a floppy drive. Reading and writing sectors works fine in both system mode (during the OS initialization) and in user mode (through sys calls). For testing stuff, there's also a rudimentary FAT-like filesystem (including a makefs command that creates new floppy images and fills them with files, a bit like genisoimage).

Since so many things depend on one another, there's also a usermode library (ulixlib) which allows Ulix programs to be (cross-) compiled with gcc. So it is now possible to write C programs that open() a file on the floppy disk and then read() from and write() to it.

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Executing processes (05.10.2012)


Ulix can run processes now. It does not handle several of them nicely yet, but the news is that programs can be compiled (externally) using a basic usermode library. So far it can printf() and--sort of--open files and read/write them.

Compiling requires a linker script which creates a flat binary: So far, Ulix does not support ELF binaries (but there'll be ELF support early next year, since a BSc student has just started working on that component). Such programs can call functions in the usermode library which in turn make system calls in order to do privileged things (such as writing to the screen and forking).

After launching a program (which has no way to properly exit() so far), Shift-Esc jumps back to the shell. The new ps command in that shell shows what's going on.

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Ulix has Hard Disk Support (sort of...) (02.10.2012)


I've been looking at a few implementations of hard disk drivers, since (obviously) Ulix needs this as well. Since none of the available solutions is simple enough for inclusion in the Ulix book, I've decided to cheat a little.

So I present: the serial hard disk. It relies on an external process that serves as some kind of simple storage server. Via the serial port, Ulix can request sectors (or send their content), and the storage process translates this to reading and writing a disk image.

It already works for non-blocking I/O (i.e. when the kernel wants to access the disk), when Ulix runs on qemu. (Bochs support follows soon.) In theory this would also work when running Ulix on a real machine and connecting the serial port to another machine running the storage process. Next up: blocking I/O for processes.

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Bachelor Theses (14.08.2012)


Two students from Nuernberg University of Applied Sciences ("Ohm-Hochschule Nürnberg") are now working on Bachelor theses, implementing parts of the ULIX operating system. I'll report on their progress and, later, on the integration of the new code into ULIX. The two theses are about RAM disks and an ELF program loader.

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Moodle... (01.06.2012)


When Ulix is finished, there will also be a Moodle course which can be used as a free introduction to operating systems. Today I've setup a temporary Moodle site.
[Update 2012/10/20: I've registered a new domain ulixos.org which will later host the course.]

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Processes... (30.05.2012)


The simple scheduling of several processes works. Each of them uses their own memory (address spaces), and a simple round robin scheduler cycles between them. For some reason they cannot access the keyboard input buffer yet. Next: Fix this input problem; understand why fork only works when manually moving the child's stack pointer 8 bytes up; create a user mode library so that processes can be compiled C programs (instead of inline assembler). Here's the first running process:

    call dofork;
    call dofork;
    mov ebx, esp;      // print ESP
    mov eax, 0x1003;
    int 0x80;
    mov eax, 20;       // call getpid()
    int 0x80;
    mov eax, 0x1000;   // store PID in 0x1000
    mov [eax], ebx;
loop:
    call doshowpid;
    jmp loop;

dofork:
    mov eax,2;         // syscall 2: fork
    int 0x80;
    ret;

doshowpid:
    mov eax,0x1000;
    mov ebx,[eax];
    add ebx,'a'-1;
    mov eax,0x1001;    // syscall 0x1001: putchar
    int 0x80;
    ret;
It forks twice, so there are 4 processes running. The screenshot shows the beautiful output of process 4 (printing "d"s).

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Filesystems: read and write via mmap? (22.05.2012)


Just a note to myself: While reading a blog posting about improved file I/O performance via memory mapped files, I wondered whether it might make sense to write an mmap() implementation first and then create open, lseek, read and write as functions which use an mmap()ped file. Every read() or write() would just turn into a memcpy(), an lseek() would just set an offset variable associated with an mmap()ped file. Plus, the code for transfering disk blocks to memory is likely to be similar to the code needed for paging in a page that was written to disk.

There would be a problem with large files, obviously, because a mapping cannot be larger than the address space.

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Processes, little updates, serial console (20.05.2012)


I'm working on the process code. So far I can create the initial process, run it (in usermode) and make it fork (via a syscall). There's also an initial implementation of a simple scheduler that is supposed to switch between tasks 1 and 2 (which does not work yet; after changing to the second process the system crashes, because the stack is corrupt. I can fix the stack, but then I get the same problem when switching back to task 1. So there is some weird error in there).

Other new stuff in Ulix: I have a serial console (thanks to the code from the xv6 operating system, but I'm only using the functionality of duplicating all terminal output in a terminal window on the host (good for long memory dumps which scroll out of the window). I've also added a "hlt" instruction in the kgetch() function, so my notebook does not get hot any longer :)

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Bug fix :) (19.05.2012)


I found a bug in memory management that came into being after including code for creating new address spaces: When there is more than one address space, we have (identical) copies of the page directory's mapping for c0000000..ffffffff -- so when an entry in that area is modifed (i.e. a new page table is created and linked from that page directory) it must also be modified in all existing copies... Took me quite a while to find it, but now the code is OK :) Memory setup works for processes (as long as no more than 4 MB are requested; can be fixed easily), so the system is ready for process creation.

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Ulix has address spaces (05.04.2012)


Another step on the way to proper process management: Ulix now has address spaces which can be switched on. So there is "process-private" memory (however: no process yet).
To do: more work on address spaces (there are some bugs in there); integrate address spaces + usermode switch + process table (not defined yet). For starters, only cooperative scheduling.

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User mode stuff: side project (02.04.2012)


Since I'm giving the lecture "System Level Programming" at Nuernberg Univ. of Applied Sciences, I use the practical coursework to develop some user mode tools for Ulix. Currently I'm working on a simple shell. So far it can evaluate parameters and launch processes (assuming there are working fork() and exec() functions).
fork() should not be a problem at all (once I have a process table), exec() can't be done properly yet since there is no filesystem code at all. However, exec() could load a binary from RAM. I had already experimented with precompiled programs stored in the Ulix code as byte arrays.

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Update: Development goes on, Moved to Erlangen (12.01.2012)


I've moved to Erlangen (where research and Ulix development are done), so now I'm closer to the project, and things will continue faster this year. Keep watching for new features :)

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User Mode (21.08.2011)


Ulix can now switch to user mode and execute simple code. Since we have no syscalls yet, it cannot do much in user mode. So the next step is to set up syscalls for "print character" and "read character" -- then I can convert the current simple shell into a user mode shell. This is not yet a process, it is just code being executed with privilege level 3 (in ring 3) instead of the kernel's own privilege level 0 (ring 0). However, it's nice to have it, because the transition from kernel to user mode requires weird code and a TSS (Task State Segment).

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Ulix has simple kmalloc() and kfree() functions (19.08.2011)


A first implementation of kmalloc and kfree is now available. It always starts with a fresh page, so it is quite wasteful. Also, it does not check, whether contiguous pages are allocated by request_new_page -- but the code for that function has been prepared so that (in the future) it will be able to guarantee a contiguous area.
The way new page tables are entered into the system has changed: I no longer allocate pages for them, only frames. They do not need to have virtual addresses because they are always referenced via their physical addresses.

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Remembering: there's a thing called scope (18.08.2011)


Back to "Learning C 101": Assume you create a new page table, and you do that within a function. That page table is supposed to stay around (even though it's never explicitly accessed outside the function, however it's being pointed to.) Sometimes the code works, sometimes not. You spend half a day on searching for the errors in the paging calculations... Perhaps something's wrong with the physical addresses? But not always? The code looks like this:

void create_new_table() {
  page_table pt;
  ... (fill pt with data)
  ... (enter &pt in global page directory)
  return;
}
Then, suddenly, at 4:00 a.m. in the morning, you realize that this way return is an implicit forget about pt. D'oh.
In related news, moving the pt declaration outside the function solved my problem, and now Ulix can reserve new pages (and correctly update the page tables) until it runs out of physical frames :) Yes, there's still the issue of paging out memory to disk. Which would require disk access. Which is a topic for later.

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v0.04: Memory Allocation: Get Frame, Get Page, Update Page Tables (17.08.2011)


OK, the memory system is slowly becoming useful. There's now a bitmap that keeps track of used/free frames in RAM, and there's a function which requests a new page (first getting a frame, then updating the page table and eventually creating a new page table when the old one is full). Next up is some kind of kmalloc()...
Some other things I found out: It's sometimes helpful to use the graphical debug frontend of Bochs. And: There's a free (LGPL-licensed), simple printf() implementation (Georges Menie, 2002) which does not depend on the existence of any libraries: all it needs is a way to put a single character on the console (and I have a putch() already).

Resources used:
printf, by Georges Menie, http://www.menie.org/georges/embedded/

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Debugging the Kernel with Bochs (14.08.2011)


Debugging the Ulix kernel requires use of some tools: I use Bochs (a fresh compile with the configure options --enable-debugger and --enable-disasm). Compared to a standard configuration of Bochs, I do a few things differently via the config file (bochsrc.txt):

  • port_e9_hack: enabled=1 lets me use a special outb() command to write to the terminal from which Bochs was started -- helpful when video is not yet setup
  • magic_break: enabled=1 allows me to insert the useless assembler statement xchg bx,bx anywhere in the code and have execution stop at that point (without having to set the breakpoint manually inside Bochs)
  • debug_symbols: file=ulix.sym makes Bochs read a symbol table at startup so it can output addresses relative to the start of some function. However no tool immediately produces the symbol table in a format that Bochs can read. I use the following command to create a fitting table:
    objdump -D ulix.bin | grep -e '^[^ ]* <' | sed -e 's/<//' -e 's/>://' > ulix.sym
    
    (This works only for ELF binaries.)
All of that together makes debugging the kernel a bit easier: Bochs can show information about registers, the GDT, TSS and many more interesting things.

Resources used:
Bochs, http://bochs.sourceforge.net/

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Preparations for User Mode (13.08.2011)


In order to create user mode processes (without implementing a program loader right now) I compile simple C programs (with a main() function) to object files and link them with a ld linker script with OUTPUT_FORMAT set to binary, creating a .com file. (I use this ending in memory of simple DOS programs and because yesterday the original IBM PC turned 30 years.) Then comes some Unix shell script magic which pipes the binary through hexdump, fmt, and sed in order to create a char array declaration like this:

static char procbin[] __attribute__ ((aligned (4096))) = {
0x83, 0xec, 0x10, 0xc7, 0x44, 0x24, 0x0c, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0xc7, 0x44, 0x24, 0x08, 0x01, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xeb,
0x10, 0x8b, 0x44, 0x24, 0x08, 0x01, 0x44, 0x24, 0x0c, 0xff,
0x44, 0x24, 0x0c, 0xff, 0x44, 0x24, 0x08, 0x83, 0x7c, 0x24,
0x08, 0x09, 0x7e, 0xe9, 0xb8, 0xcd, 0xab, 0x00, 0x00, 0xcd,
0x80, 0x8b, 0x44, 0x24, 0x0c, 0x83, 0xc4, 0x10, 0xc3, 0x00
};
That can be pasted into the Ulix source code and will create a page-aligned block holding the program. This is then mapped to page 0, and user mode is entered with an IRET to address 0: The program starts.
In order to check what code has been produced by the compiler, I use the disassembler udis86.

Resources used:
udis86 disassembler library with udcli client, http://udis86.sourceforge.net/

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Physical RAM mapped, hexdump (13.08.2011)


I've done some preparations for user mode: physical RAM (I assume 64 MByte RAM) is now mapped to 0xD000.0000-0xD3FF.FFFF. That's helpful when I know the physical address of some data, but not the virtual one. I noticed that it's easy to forget that page directory entries need to point to physical addresses, not virtual ones. I kept wondering why I got segfaults :)
There is now a "frame list" (actually just a bitmap). It can be asked for the status of any frame (im RAM), and for each frame the status can be set to free or used.
Another new function is hexdump() which displays (virtual) memory contents in the same format as the shell command hexdump does for text files. It was fun to compare its output with the output of 'hexdump ulix.bin'. My temporary shell (the hard-coded main loop for now) cannot yet parse arguments to commands, so hexdump will display contents of three memory areas selected in the code; in a future version it will accept start and end addresses and show the memory region's contents.

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v0.03: Paging with Higher Half Kernel (12.08.2011)


It works: now the kernel uses virtual addresses starting at 0xC0000000 (the last of four gigabytes). This is a preparation for allowing user mode code (processes) to run in the lower 3 GBytes. It took me all a whole day to get this to work because my original code did not setup enough page -> frame mappings; it mapped some virtual memory to [0..1MB], but the system was loaded to [1MB..2MB], so after enabling paging nothing useful was found...
Now the next step will be user mode. For a starter I will just try to switch to user mode and back; there's some meddling with the stack involved because Intel CPUs have only one instruction that can be used to enter user mode: IRET (return from interrupt) which finds the next instruction pointer on the stack. This will later turn into the init process from which all other processes will be forked.
Another thing to think of now is memory allocation. When I start handling processes I will need a list of free page frames, so the physical memory should be identified in the beginning. There's a lot of untested frame allocation code in Felix Freiling's non-Intel Ulix, so I'll look how that works on an Intel chip.

Resources used:
Higher Half With GDT, http://wiki.osdev.org/Higher_Half_With_GDT

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Working on the GDT trick (11.08.2011)


In order to make the kernel use (virtual) high memory addresses (0xC000.0000 to 0xFFFF.FFFF), some extra work is necessary. I am porting the GDT trick over to the current code which uses a special GDT that linearly remaps memory by supplying a relocation offset as part of a segment description.

Resources used:
Higher Half With GDT, http://wiki.osdev.org/Higher_Half_With_GDT

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v0.02: Booting, Paging (01.08.2011)


I started with OS code from Bran's OS tutorial and imported this code (slightly modified) into the tex/noweb sources. Shell scripts can create either a PDF file of the documentation or a bootable floppy image with the kernel on it. The kernel loads low in RAM and starts paging. It uses identity mapping for the first MB of RAM.

Resources used:
Bran's Kernel Development Tutorial, http://www.osdever.net/tutorials/view/brans-kernel-development-tutorial
GCC Cross Compiler, http://www.fanofblitzbasic.de/prettyos/PrettyOSMacOSX.pdf
All in one boot disk: http://rescup.winbuilder.net/bootdisk/
Qemu: http://wiki.qemu.org/
Bochs: http://bochs.sourceforge.net/
Noweb: http://www.cs.tufts.edu/~nr/noweb/
mtools (for copying the kernel binary to the floppy image): http://www.gnu.org/s/mtools/
Ulix noweb sources (Felix Freiling, unpublished)

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Ulix v0.01 - it begins (01.07.2011)


So here's the beginning of my ULIX blog, and also the beginning of my Ulix-i386 development. I base my work on Felix Freiling's "The Design and Implementation of the ULIX Operating System", an unfinished literate programming document from which parts of an OS theory book (in LaTeX) and parts of a kernel (in C and assembler) can be extracted using the noweb tools (noweave, notangle).

The original code from this document is intended to run on a virtual machine (the ULIX hardware) which is also described in that text and for which parts of a tool chain (emulator, gcc port, assembler) had been created by other students. However, I am implementing Ulix for the i386 architecture. So some of the original code will remain, and some must go.

In this blog I will keep you updated on my progress.

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